Christmas and Chinese New Year Festival | Comparison

Christmas and Chinese New Year Festival | Comparison After researching both Christmas and the Chinese New Year Festival, interesting similarities between the two unique celebrations came into fruition. For instance, both contain traditional meals, presents, feasts, decorations, songs, poems, God(s), folk lore, and are family oriented occasions. When discovering similarities, there were also perceptible differences between the two, such as the time of year, and the significance of the occasion within their respective cultures. This paper will be showcasing both Christmas, and the Chinese New Year Festival in terms of their origins, as well as the similarities and differences they both share. Christmas is a religious celebratory holiday, which embraces the birth of Jesus Christ. Christmas Eve takes place on December 24th, the day before Jesus Christ is born. This is the day where family members gather for a festive meal, which in North America, usually consists of a large turkey, mashed potatoes, stuffing, vegetables, gravy and wine. It is significant to know that different cultures may eat different meals. According to Wikipedia.org, â€Å"In Poland, traditional Christmas Eve meals include one or more of the following foods: Golabki filled with Kasza, Pierogi, Borscht, fish soup, carp, and pickled Herring. Krupnik is sometimes drunk after dinner,†[1] and â€Å"In the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria, a coin is concealed in a bread loaf and the host breaks a piece of the loaf at the dinner table for each member of the household: it is believed that the one who gets the piece of bread with the coin will be fortunate in the forthcoming year. The dinner is accordin g to the rules of fasting: fish, baked beans, sauerkraut, walnuts and red wine are common. The dessert may consist of apples and dried fruits: plums, dates, figs. The table is usually not cleared after the dinner and until the next morning, to leave some food for the holly spirits a custom which probably comes from pagan pre-Christian times.†[2] Also, there are many families whom may attend mass or choose to â€Å"divine fast†[3]on this day, as a means to celebrate on the night before Jesus birth. It is important to know that non-religious individuals may also celebrate Christmas as well, whom primarily focus on the family, feasting, and gift giving aspect of Christmas. Some may view Santa Claus, a mythological figure, to be more important than Jesus Christ. Santa Claus is known for travelling across the world on December 24th, from the North Pole, delivering presents to the â€Å"nice† children, while the â€Å"naughty† children receive a lump of coal. H ence, Santas list for delivering gifts to children is called the â€Å"naughty or nice list.† Santa Clause originates from â€Å"St. Nicholas, whom tried to help others while inspiring his virtues. Legends of his unselfish giving spread all over Northern Europe, and accounts of his heroic deeds blended with regional folklore. Eventually, the image of the stately saint was transformed onto an almost mystical being, one known for rewarding the good and punishing the bad.†[4] How Santa Clauss name came to be in North America was due to Dutch immigrants whom â€Å"presented Sinterklaas (meaning St. Nicholas) to the colonies. In their excitement, many English-speaking children uttered the name so quickly that Sinterklaas sounded like Santy Claus. After years of mispronunciation, the name evolved into Santa Claus.†[5] December 25th is the day where Jesus Christ, known to many Christians as their savior, is born. This is the day where a few individuals will put up nume rous decorations, although many will decorate in advance. Examples of decorations used for Christmas are; miniature size nativity scene figures, stockings, wreaths, ornaments, candles, mistletoes, garlands, poinsettias, Christmas lights and most importantly, the Christmas tree. â€Å"The origin of the tree is credited to Saint Boniface (circa 722) who stopped a child from becoming a human sacrifice to a pagan god by striking down the oak tree destined for use as the stake. A fir tree sprang up in its place and he declared it a holy tree and instructed the faithful to carry one to their homes and surround it with love and gifts.†[6] Ultimately, the blending of numerous cultures is how Santa Claus, as well as the numerous traditions on Christmas Eve and Day, came to be. The Chinese New Year Festival is a major holiday, which has been celebrated in mainland China for many centuries, taking place on â€Å"the second New Moon after the winter solstice.†[7] It is significant to know that this festival is also celebrated in other countries by its Chinese inhabitants, while various foreigners have been known to participate in the festivities as well. During this coming year, 2010, the Chinese will be celebrating the year of the tiger, the first day being on February 14th. â€Å"According to tales and legends, the beginning of Chinese New Year started with the fight against a mythical beast called the Nien (Chinese: ?;pinyin: nià ¡n). Nien would come on the first day of New Year to devour livestock, crops, and even villagers, especially children. To protect themselves, the villagers would put food in front of their doors at the beginning of every year.†[8] The Chinese not only used food as a means to protect themselves from Nian, but they al so released firecrackers, and wore red attire. Hence, the color red is strongly used throughout the festival, such as clothing, decorations, envelopes, sweets, gifts, etc. When families come together, they will feast on meat, noodles, rice, dumplings, mandarin oranges, sweets, and so forth. Before the feast, which takes place on the Eve of Chinese New Year, red envelopes with money inside and gifts should have already been distributed amongst family members, and children. The Chinese New Year consists of fifteen days, with the majority of the days each signifying different customs and actions. For instance, â€Å"The first day of the Lunar New Year is â€Å"the welcoming of the gods of the heavens and earth.† Many people abstain from meat on the first day of the new year because it is believed that this will ensure long and happy lives for them,†[9] â€Å"The fifth day is called Po Woo. On that day people stay home to welcome the God of Wealth. No one visits families and friends on the fifth day because it will bring both parties bad luck,†[10] â€Å"the seventh day of the New Year is the day for farmers to display their produce. These farmers make a drink from seven types of vegetables to celebrate the occasion. The seventh day is also considered the birthday of human beings. Noodles are eaten to promote longevity and raw fish for success,†[11] and on â€Å"the 10th through the 12th are days that friends and relatives should be invited for dinner. After so much rich food, on the 13th day you should have simple rice congee and mustard greens (choi sum) to cleanse the system.†[12] These are just a few of the customs that the Chinese celebrate throughout their New Year Festival. â€Å"It is also the tradition that every family thoroughly cleans the house to sweep away any ill-fortune in hopes to make way for good incoming luck. Windows and doors will be decorated with red color paper-cuts and couplets with popular themes of â €Å"happiness†, â€Å"wealth†, and â€Å"longevity†.†[13] Decorations are usually red, consisting of pictures, greetings, and Chinese idioms. On the fifteenth and final day of the Chinese New Year Festival, the Lantern Festival takes place. During this period, numerous individuals decorate the streets with Lanterns they have lit, which are primarily red. Some people may add their own unique individuality to a lantern, by adding a song or a poem to it. The Chinese New Year Festival is a high-spirited, content time where family and friends come together in order to celebrate years of tradition, such as feasts, decorations, gifts, envelopes, mythology, fortune gods, national pride, etc. It is also an influential festival that has spread across the world, blending in with copious cultures. It is fascinating to learn that Christmas and the Chinese New Year have actual similarities, with slight variations to them. For instance, the use of flowers is strongly used in both celebrations, although the Chinese convention for flowers has a more significant meaning within their culture. A certain flower can symbolize different connotations, for instance, longevity, luck, prosperity, tranquility, health, etc. The Chinese are known for using many different flowers for the Chinese New Year Festival, such as pussy willows, plum blossoms, water lilies, bamboo, and so forth. For example, the reason for using pussy willows for the Chinese New Year is â€Å"In Cantonese, â€Å"Yin Liu† sounds like â€Å"Yin Lou† which is similar to â€Å"Yin Liang† (money). Therefore, having this plant around during Chinese New Year would represent the invitation of abundant luck and prosperity into homes.†[14] As for western cultures, when celebrating Christmas, individuals use flowers mostly as decorations. It is principal to know, that there is an origin story of how the poinsettia became the official flower for Christmas. â€Å"The poinsettia is a shrub that features green leaves combined with red, white, or pink leaves surrounding tiny yellow flowers. Used by the Aztecs as a dye and medicine, it is native to Mexico and Central America where it is known as â€Å"Flores de Noche Buena† (Flower of the Holy Night) and was used in these areas by Franciscan friars in Nativity processions as early as the 17th century.†[15] In terms of sweets and baked goods, sticky cake and Christmas cake closely resemble one another. Sticky cake, also known as Neen Gow, is a fruitcake that can be either steamed or baked. This particular cake is made in appreciation for the kitchen god. The Christmas cake started out as porridge from the English, evolving over the past couple of centuries into a fruit cake. The ingredients usually consist of eggs, flour, su gar, butter, marzipan, spices, dried fruit, spices, and whisky. â€Å"All Christmas cakes are made in advance. Many make them in November, keeping the cake upside down in an airtight container. A small amount of brandy, sherry or whisky is poured into holes in the cake every week until Christmas. This process is called â€Å"feeding† the cake.†[16]Both celebrations are also known for the process of giving and receiving gifts to friends and/or relatives. For instance, during the Chinese New Year, individuals will give gifts, which â€Å"are usually brought when visiting friends or relatives at their homes. Common gifts include fruits (typically oranges, and never pears), cakes, biscuits, chocolates, candies, or some other small gift.†[17] Christmas gifts are also distributed, and some gifts can be similar to those that are given on the Chinese New Year, but Christmas gifts usually consist from a large variety of options. For example, food, alcohol, jewelry, elect ronics, toys, household appliances, automobiles, etc. Christmas and the Chinese New Year are both important celebratory occasions, which can bring joy and anticipation amongst those whom celebrate these events. These are times when family, friends and even complete strangers, can come together in harmonious enthusiasm. Both events contain similarities, such as, folk lore, feasts, decorations, gifts, traditions, songs, poems, flowers, God(s), games, etc. Christmas, a westernized occasion, may contain different significance and symbolic meanings to those whom celebrate it rather than those whom celebrate the Chinese New Year. But, the most important thing about these two occasions, even with their differences, is they bring people together, and are both accepting towards all cultures and beliefs. Works Cited Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://www.wikipedia.org/chinesesnewyear Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://www.educ.uvic.ca/faculty/mroth/438/CHINA/taboos.html Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://www.ci.lenoir.nc.us/index.asp?Type=B_EVSEC=%7BF083A2AC-A24E-4B3B-8944-F912226F078D%7DDE=%7B817E6FA1-42C1-4B01-8A28-F0EF2477494F%7D Retrieved November 27, 2009 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas_Eve Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://www.familyculture.com/holidays/chinese_new_year.htm (December.2, 2001)The Guide to Life, the Universe and Everything. Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A665949 (February.8, 2007) Popular Chinese New Year Plants. Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://www.nparks.gov.sg/blogs/garden_voices/index.php/2007/02/08/popular-chinese-new-year-plants/ Davis, John K. (November.10, 2009)The Origins of Traditional Holiday Plants. Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://botany.suite101.com/article.cfm/the_origins_of_traditional_christmas_plants Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://www.nparks.gov.sg/blogs/garden_voices/index.php/2007/02/08/popular-chinese-new-year-plants/ Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://botany.suite101.com/article.cfm/the_origins_of_traditional_christmas_plants Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://www.northpolesantaclaus.com/santahistory.htm Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A665949 Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://www.chinapage.com/newyear.html Retrieved November 27, 2009 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas_Eve References Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://www.wikipedia.org/chinesesnewyear Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://www.educ.uvic.ca/faculty/mroth/438/CHINA/taboos.html Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://www.ci.lenoir.nc.us/index.asp?Type=B_EVSEC=%7BF083A2AC-A24E-4B3B-8944-F912226F078D%7DDE=%7B817E6FA1-42C1-4B01-8A28-F0EF2477494F%7D Retrieved November 27, 2009 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas_Eve Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://www.familyculture.com/holidays/chinese_new_year.htm (December.2, 2001)The Guide to Life, the Universe and Everything. Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A665949 (February.8, 2007) Popular Chinese New Year Plants. Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://www.nparks.gov.sg/blogs/garden_voices/index.php/2007/02/08/popular-chinese-new-year-plants/ Davis, John K. (November.10, 2009)The Origins of Traditional Holiday Plants. Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://botany.suite101.com/article.cfm/the_origins_of_traditional_christmas_plants Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://www.nparks.gov.sg/blogs/garden_voices/index.php/2007/02/08/popular-chinese-new-year-plants/ Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://botany.suite101.com/article.cfm/the_origins_of_traditional_christmas_plants Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://www.northpolesantaclaus.com/santahistory.htm Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A665949 Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://www.chinapage.com/newyear.html Retrieved November 27, 2009 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas_Eve Retrieved November 27,2009 from http://www.calendar-updates.com/info/holidays/us/christmaseve.aspx Retrieved November 27, 2009 from http://www.ornamentshop.com/history_story/part1.asp Retrieved November 27, 2009 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas_Eve Retrieved November 27, 2009 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas_Eve Retrieved November 27, 2009 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas_Eve Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://www.northpolesantaclaus.com/santahistory.htm Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://www.northpolesantaclaus.com/santahistory.htm (December.2, 2001)The Guide to Life, the Universe and Everything. Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A665949 Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://www.chinapage.com/newyear.html Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://www.wikipedia.org/chinesesnewyear Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://www.educ.uvic.ca/faculty/mroth/438/CHINA/taboos.html Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://www.educ.uvic.ca/faculty/mroth/438/CHINA/taboos.html Retrieved November.28 2009 from http://www.educ.uvic.ca/faculty/mroth/438/CHINA/taboos.html Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://www.educ.uvic.ca/faculty/mroth/438/CHINA/taboos.html Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://www.ci.lenoir.nc.us/index.asp?Type=B_EVSEC=%7BF083A2AC-A24E-4B3B-8944-F912226F078D%7DDE=%7B817E6FA1-42C1-4B01-8A28-F0EF2477494F%7D (February.8, 2007) Popular Chinese New Year Plants. Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://www.nparks.gov.sg/blogs/garden_voices/index.php/2007/02/08/popular-chinese-new-year-plants/ Davis, John K. (November.10, 2009)The Origins of Traditional Holiday Plants. Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://botany.suite101.com/article.cfm/the_origins_of_traditional_christmas_plants Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://www.familyculture.com/holidays/chinese_new_year.htm Retrieved November.28, 2009 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_New_Year Gulf of Tonkin Incident: Military Investigation Gulf of Tonkin Incident: Military Investigation Military Intelligence Organizations Military Intelligence is a division of military the purpose of which is to exploit the number of information collected and analysis techniques in order to provide guidance and directions to commanders in support of the crucial decisions made by them. They do it by performing an analysis and assessment of the available data which they gathers from wide range of sources, guiding and directing the commanders to make decisions or respond to focused questions as part of their operational campaign. The collected information is first identified and then incorporated into the process of intelligence collection, analysis and dissemination. Military Intelligence Organizations have played their role in resolving conflicts in any nation. Discusses here is the Gulf of Tonkin Incident and the role of U.S. Military Intelligence Organizations to resolve it. The incident took place on August 2 4 1964 (Kim, 1999). This was the incident that helped the America’s involvement in Vietnam War. Gulf of Tonkin Incident Overview When President Lyndon b. took over charge of the country after the death of President John F. Kennedy, he became worried about the South Vietnam’s ability to keep away the Communist Viet Cong guerillas that were actively operating at that time in the country. In order to follow the established policy of containment, the Secretary of Defense at that time Robert McNamara started to increase the military aid to South Vietnam (Trueman, 2000). Many Norwegian built fast patrol boats (PTFs) were purchased and sent to South Vietnam. These PTFs helped in conducting a series of attacks on coastal areas of South Vietnam as part of Operation 34A. 34A was originally began by Central Intelligence Agency in 1961, it was a extremely classified program of the covert operations against North Vietnam. Due to several early failed attacks, in 1964 it was transferred to Military Assistance Command, Vietnam Studies and Observations Group, and the focus of it was shifted towards maritime operations. In due course of time, U.S. Navy was also instructed to conduct Desoto patrols off the North Vietnam. The Desoto Patrols consisted of the American warships cruising in international waters in order to conduct electronic surveillance operations (Shane, 2001). As a result of 34A and the Desoto Patrols, the ships offshore were made able to collect important information about the North Vietnamese Military capabilities. The First Attack On July 31, 1964 the destroyer USS Maddox conducted the Desoto Patrol off North Vietnam (Paterson, 2008). Under the operational command of Captain John J. Herrick, it steamed through the Gulf of Tonkin collecting intelligence information. This mission was accompanied by several 34A attacks including many big attacks on two islands of North Vietnam. The Government of North Vietnam decided to strike the USS Maddox and on August 2, three Soviet built P-4 Motor torpedo boats were dispatched to attack the destroyer. About twenty-eight miles cruising in international waters, the torpedo caught the USS Maddox. In the meanwhile, Herrick requested for air support from the U.S. Air Force. The request was granted and the four F-8 Crusaders were sent towards the Maddox position. Herrick also ordered to fire the three warning shots if the torpedo reaches a range of 10,000 yards of ship. These warning shots were fired and the P-4s launched their first torpedo attack. The Maddox scored fire on P-4s and was just being hit by one 14.5 millimeter machine gun bullet. Soon after fifteen minutes, the F- crusades arrived to rescue the Maddox and started hitting the targeted fires on North Vietnamese boats, damaging the two and leaving the third one dead in the waters. The attack was retreated and the Maddox returned to join its friends but the Desoto mission was continued as per orders of the commander in the Pacific. The Second Attack On August 4, the American radars, sonar and radio signals were received of another North Vietnam attacks. Taking evasive action, the U.S. Maddox fired on numerous radar signals targets. After this incident (Parados, 2004), Herrick was not sure that his ship was attacked by the North Vietnam. Reporting at 1:27 AM Washington times that due to freak weather, the radar and sonar signals did report some of the enemy ships but nothing has been visualized by the Maddox. After suggesting the complete evaluation of the affair conducted by the U.S military intelligence, Herrick radioed a request asking for a complete reconnaissance in daylight by the aircrafts. But the American aircrafts flying over the area failed to find out any North Vietnam ship. Although there were doubts about the second attack, those present on Maddox were convinced that the attack did happen. This along with the flawed signals intelligence from the National Security Agency led the forces to attack retaliatory airstrikes against North Vietnam. On August 5, the Operation Pierce Arrow saw aircrafts from USS Ticonderoga and USS Constellation strike and attack about thirty North Vietnam vessels. Although the subsequent research and records prove that the second attack didn’t happen. This was also reinforced by the statements from the retired Vietnamese Defense Minister who admitted the August 2 attack but denied the second attack. After ordering the airstrikes, soon Johnson went on to address the nation on television regarding the incident. He in his address requested the passage of a resolution, which expresses the unity and determination of the United States in support of their freedom and in the hope to protect peace in the Southeast Asia (Cohen Solomon, 1994). He also argued that he didn’t want a wider war, and said that United States would continue to protect its national interests. As approved on August 6, 1964, the Southeast Asia (Gulf of Tonkin) Resolution, gave Johnson the power to use military intelligence and force in the region without requiring a declaration of war. Later on over the next few years, Johnson used this resolution to rapidly escalate the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. Intelligence has fulfilled the wider ranging and very important functions in different section including security, diplomacy and statecraft (Augustin, 2009). However in past few years, the role of military intelligence in resolution of conflicts has expanded and broadened its range and now it forms the core element of conflict management policies and procedures. Ancient Greece is the first democracy in the world. It has established several institutions that served as intelligence services. Proxenia were the upper class citizens of Greece who served as top class agents. They used to collect information and even executed the assassinations if required. The Heralds collected the public and private information. Both were protected by the Law of Greece and only the Heralds used to get the rewards of bringing good news back to the nation. Greece impressive political and military achievements really lacked the true intelligence system like today. Although they didn’t have the proper intelligence system like today but still they had the intelligence cycle existed in their military endeavors. The two major requirements of intelligence services are democratic control and the effectiveness of the actions and activities (Augustin, 2009). African countries always had difficulties in managing and creating the solid intelligence systems. The territory of the Sahara Dessert is always problematic so the military intelligence related to that area is restricted. In 1997, the African countries created a security sector reform whose purpose was to try and narrow the challenges and constraints of developing a proper military intelligence system in the area. The main challenges that African countries are facing these days include the legacy of the African socialism and colonialism, autocratic military and security services and the unknown and informal activities of the military intelligence services. Gambia established the National Intelligence Agency in order to protect the regime. The unsuccessful attempts of Eisenhower and Kennedy to remove Castro from the power are considered as the failed military intelligence actions (Augustin, 2009). According to them the biggest threat to democracy is the communism. In Cuba, the America supported the Batista leading anti-communist government. After Castro being elected to power, he started quickly eliminating his enemies. And started to nationalize the economy and created knots with the USSR. His actions made it clear by 1960 that he was following the communism path for the Cuba. Eisenhower tried to remove the Castro from power by training Anti-Castro forces and sneaking them into Cuba. They began to target the Cuban sugar fields and the CIA developed an assassination program to eliminate Castro. Although such attempts were failed again and again, Kennedy tried to invade the Cuba by the Bay of Pigs operation but that was again a failure. This was all due to the strong military intelligence of Castro which saved him from all the American attacks. The Shah of Iran has a weak legitimacy and had lot of enemies (Augustin, 2009), ], so to overcome them in 1957, he formed the SAVAK, a national intelligence and security organization. The SAVAK served a tool to torture and eliminated anyone who could prove as a threat to the Shah and his dynasty. No open opposition was allowed against the institution in Iran during Shah Regime, but with the passage of time the resistance of people became worst. Khomeini got exiled to Iraq and then to France because of his increasing popularity and threat to his life. In 1977, censorship law was introduced in Iran in order to retain the Shah’s power but due to his detachment from the public, the public dismissed him and Khomeini came to power after the over throw of the Shah of Iran .In 1980 under the rule of Reagan (Augustin, 2009), The U.S. Intelligence Community realized a need for more intense intervention in Central America in order to stop the communist expansion. El Salvador’s mil itary government was the only potential barrier against the communism in the Central America. The DIA also tried to help the government of El Salvador to assist them fight against the leftist group called as FMLN. The DIA worked and operated with the direct military intelligence information sharing and between 1987 to 1989 a guerilla attack was made by the FMLN which surprised the El Salvador and the American armies. This also showed that how little the U.S support helped. Over all the defense of the El Salvador is considered as the failure in the history of the U.S. military intelligence. Intelligence is basically the sociological phenomenon that is used for the information gathering and to ensure the prevention of hostility (Augustin, 2009). It is important to differentiate between the intelligence that has been existed in any nation and the intelligence that is established as a result of state concept. Intelligence cycle, covert actions and counter intelligence are all the components necessary for decision making process. Intelligence focuses on the hostility both in democracies and non-democracies tenures. Intelligence in democratic system must have strong relations with the citizens and must work under a legal framework. The functions and scope of working of intelligence agencies must be clarified and their methods of working and sources of information must be protected. However intelligence in the non-democratic system concentrates more on internal opposition rather than external threats. So the intelligence is outside of the scope of legal framework in non-democ ratic system while intelligence in democracies should only be used to measure level of democracy in the country. In 1960, the Egyptian forces entered in Sinai which was a big surprise to Israel (Augustin, 2009). The IDF couldn’t respond in time and it lead to the result that intelligence was needed for an earlier warning of possible Egyptian attack. The methods or tools for an earlier warning were HUMINT, the SIGINT and the VISINT. The 1960 rotten affair and the 1973 Vom Kippur war failure show failure of the intelligence system and a need for strong intelligence system. References [1] Sankt Augustin (2009), Intelligence and Democracies in Conflict and Peace, retrieved from,  http://www.kas.de/israel/en/publications/18450/ [2] Tom Kim (1999), The Gulf of Tonkin Incident 1964, retrieved from,  http://www.thenagain.info/webchron/usa/GulfTonkin.html [3] Chris Trueman (2000), Gulf of Tonkin 1964, retrieved from  http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/gulf_tonkin_1964.htm [4] Scot Shane (2001), The Gulf of Tonkin Incident, retrieved from  http://911review.com/precedent/century/tonkin.html [5] Lieutenant Commander Pat Paterson, U.S. Navy (2008), The Truth about Tonkin, retrieved from  http://www.usni.org/magazines/navalhistory/2008-02/truth-about-tonkin [6]  John Parados (2004), The Gulf of Tonkin Incident, 40 Years later, retrieved from  http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB132/ [7] Jeff Cohen and Norman Solomon (1994), 30-Years anniversary, Tonkin Gulf Lie Launched Vietnam War, retrieved from  http://fair.org/media-beat-column/30-year-anniversary-tonkin-gulf-lie-launched-vietnam-war/

Kraft Food

Strength ? Kraft foods is the world second largest food company since it has the presence in 160 countries with 168 integrated factories, (Geographical presence of Kraft foods ) ? It has a heritage of business since 1903 ? The human resource capacity of this company is 97000 which make them the one of largest in the globe, ? Kraft foods carries 40 brands which is in the market over 100 years ? Country led model of the Kraft foods which lead towards making decisions more faster ?Acquisition of Cadbury & LU biscuits which led the strong presence of Kraft foods in the global market because Cadbury had 45000 employees & the presence of the brand in 60 countries , LU biscuit which has 32 manufacturing facilities with 14000 employees which lead more market share , more value or revenue from the segment categories specially in the European region 1. Weakness ? Kraft Foods 12. 5% ( 2009 ) comes from 5 brands portfolio ? Adding the Pan – European centralized management will lead to cul tural effect in the organizational structure ?The acquisition process of Cadbury bought more negative impact on Kraft food since an UK based company was taken over by a foreign based company ? Selling of frozen pizza & post cereal business which effect the convenience foods segments net revenue contribution of 94. 1% & operating income of 8. 8 % as per 2009 figures of Kraft foods north America 2. Opportunities ? Expand penetration in developing markets by the increase of the population Ex: China , India markets 3. Threats ? Holidays & Seasonal Changes effect the demands of the products ?By presenting in globally Kraft foods Came across competition from retail house brands, generic brands, regional , local, & other multinational brands Ex: Super Markets like Tesco , Carrefour developing their own brands on FMCG category in Srilanka Cargills, Keells Super has their own brands ? Cost increase of the raw materials & other local political , legal un stabilities of the countries ( ingredi ents & packaging material ) Ex: Mad cow disease had stop purchase most of the imported or processed meat from other countries 1. Political Political unrest particularly in the Ivory Coast affecting supply of Cocoa and in other parts of Africa. ? European unions condition for acquisition of Cadbury which led to Kraft foods to sell the Cadbury confectionery operations in Romania & Poland ? Favourable regulations allowing relatively easy acquisition of Cadbury in spite of promises by UK Labour Party to enact a Cadbury Law to maintain the UK ownership. ? Government agricultural policies impacting upon Kraft operations ? Competition and antitrust controls. 1. Legal ? Ban on exports of foodstuffs from CIS a result of poor crops – also environmental factor. Compliance with food regulations in different jurisdictions ? Importance of patent protection with regard to branded organisation like Kraft – problems of enforcement ? Contractual rights in various countries 2. Economic ? Fluctuation in currencies especially the US Dollar impacting particularly on Kraft with its operations in over 160 countries ? Recession has impact on business activity economic activity particularly with regard to the value of the UK pound and the Euro with regard to economic problems in Ireland, Portugal and Greece. Sharp increases in commodity prices – the case highlights the situation with regard to coffee and cocoa, a result of speculation and demand increases as the world population grows. There are also supply issues as a result of weather problems and the changeover from food crops to bio–fuel crops. 3. Social ? Growth in demand for coffee from growth of organisations such as Starbucks (economic) ? Move towards health consciousness which will impact on processed foods manufacturers such as Kraft and Cadbury leading to negative perceptions of packaged foods like Kraft manufacture ?Culturally bound markets significance of foods within certain culture ? There are problems of rural communities with migration to urban areas especially young people which accentuates the key problem of aging. ? Corporate social responsibility becoming a key issue as initiatives such as Fairtrade gain support from major food producers notably Cadbury with its flagship brand Dairy Milk. ? There have been changes in food habits as a result of the economic crisis leading to phenomenon such as â€Å"stay at home† and growth of consumption of retailer brands and other cheaper brands. . Environmental ? Global warming causing extremes of weather eg Floods in Pakistan and droughts in CIS leading to disruptions in supplies of raw materials ? Increasing pressure on organisations particularly high profile multinationals such as Kraft, to become greener. The issue of carbon footprint and food miles is critical to global organisations. ? Waste and recycling issues – Kraft uses significant amount of packaging and is also subject to transportation costs. 5. Techn ology Although technologies are converging globally, there are still wide variations in IT availability across countries and multinational organisations such as Kraft must take account of this. ? There is continuous pressure to develop cheaper production techniques via the application of new technologies to become the low cost producer in order to both maximize profits and to resist pressures from retailers such Walmart for lower prices. ? Kraft is particularly strong in R & D ? The growing impact of ITC leading to more e-business and e-procurement. – Kraft Food Strength ? Kraft foods is the world second largest food company since it has the presence in 160 countries with 168 integrated factories, (Geographical presence of Kraft foods ) ? It has a heritage of business since 1903 ? The human resource capacity of this company is 97000 which make them the one of largest in the globe, ? Kraft foods carries 40 brands which is in the market over 100 years ? Country led model of the Kraft foods which lead towards making decisions more faster ?Acquisition of Cadbury & LU biscuits which led the strong presence of Kraft foods in the global market because Cadbury had 45000 employees & the presence of the brand in 60 countries , LU biscuit which has 32 manufacturing facilities with 14000 employees which lead more market share , more value or revenue from the segment categories specially in the European region 1. Weakness ? Kraft Foods 12. 5% ( 2009 ) comes from 5 brands portfolio ? Adding the Pan – European centralized management will lead to cul tural effect in the organizational structure ?The acquisition process of Cadbury bought more negative impact on Kraft food since an UK based company was taken over by a foreign based company ? Selling of frozen pizza & post cereal business which effect the convenience foods segments net revenue contribution of 94. 1% & operating income of 8. 8 % as per 2009 figures of Kraft foods north America 2. Opportunities ? Expand penetration in developing markets by the increase of the population Ex: China , India markets 3. Threats ? Holidays & Seasonal Changes effect the demands of the products ?By presenting in globally Kraft foods Came across competition from retail house brands, generic brands, regional , local, & other multinational brands Ex: Super Markets like Tesco , Carrefour developing their own brands on FMCG category in Srilanka Cargills, Keells Super has their own brands ? Cost increase of the raw materials & other local political , legal un stabilities of the countries ( ingredi ents & packaging material ) Ex: Mad cow disease had stop purchase most of the imported or processed meat from other countries 1. Political Political unrest particularly in the Ivory Coast affecting supply of Cocoa and in other parts of Africa. ? European unions condition for acquisition of Cadbury which led to Kraft foods to sell the Cadbury confectionery operations in Romania & Poland ? Favourable regulations allowing relatively easy acquisition of Cadbury in spite of promises by UK Labour Party to enact a Cadbury Law to maintain the UK ownership. ? Government agricultural policies impacting upon Kraft operations ? Competition and antitrust controls. 1. Legal ? Ban on exports of foodstuffs from CIS a result of poor crops – also environmental factor. Compliance with food regulations in different jurisdictions ? Importance of patent protection with regard to branded organisation like Kraft – problems of enforcement ? Contractual rights in various countries 2. Economic ? Fluctuation in currencies especially the US Dollar impacting particularly on Kraft with its operations in over 160 countries ? Recession has impact on business activity economic activity particularly with regard to the value of the UK pound and the Euro with regard to economic problems in Ireland, Portugal and Greece. Sharp increases in commodity prices – the case highlights the situation with regard to coffee and cocoa, a result of speculation and demand increases as the world population grows. There are also supply issues as a result of weather problems and the changeover from food crops to bio–fuel crops. 3. Social ? Growth in demand for coffee from growth of organisations such as Starbucks (economic) ? Move towards health consciousness which will impact on processed foods manufacturers such as Kraft and Cadbury leading to negative perceptions of packaged foods like Kraft manufacture ?Culturally bound markets significance of foods within certain culture ? There are problems of rural communities with migration to urban areas especially young people which accentuates the key problem of aging. ? Corporate social responsibility becoming a key issue as initiatives such as Fairtrade gain support from major food producers notably Cadbury with its flagship brand Dairy Milk. ? There have been changes in food habits as a result of the economic crisis leading to phenomenon such as â€Å"stay at home† and growth of consumption of retailer brands and other cheaper brands. . Environmental ? Global warming causing extremes of weather eg Floods in Pakistan and droughts in CIS leading to disruptions in supplies of raw materials ? Increasing pressure on organisations particularly high profile multinationals such as Kraft, to become greener. The issue of carbon footprint and food miles is critical to global organisations. ? Waste and recycling issues – Kraft uses significant amount of packaging and is also subject to transportation costs. 5. Techn ology Although technologies are converging globally, there are still wide variations in IT availability across countries and multinational organisations such as Kraft must take account of this. ? There is continuous pressure to develop cheaper production techniques via the application of new technologies to become the low cost producer in order to both maximize profits and to resist pressures from retailers such Walmart for lower prices. ? Kraft is particularly strong in R & D ? The growing impact of ITC leading to more e-business and e-procurement. –

“The Politics of Translations”

The concept that a translation suggest is that there is an original. To some translation is seen as duplication, which suggests a concept of original being of higher value and the duplicate of lesser value. However, regardless of how one might define translation, translation is making the text readable to one particular language.Translation is communicating the textual content of one language to another and as it was stated, â€Å"each slightly different from the one that came before it: translations of translations of translations. Each text is unique, yet at the same time it is the translation of another text† The Politics of translationAmidst the issues confronting the works of translation studies, the politics of translation must be seen as way of dealing with the problem. As Bassnett and Travedi is concern, the works on translation studies are confronted by the issues relating to the relationship between the text referred to as the original or the source, and the translat ion of that original.   The problem confronting the field of translation studies is the notion of duplication or of not being original, which grossly creates a discrediting concept on translation works. The politics of translation must enfold the growing importance of translation studies including the linguistic branch to be able to present shared intelligibility without sacrificing difference for the sake of a blind integration.According to Bassnett and Travedi, the issue on the relationship between translation and the so-called original, â€Å"arose as a result of the invention of printing and the spread of literacy.†This led to the emergence of the idea that an author is owner of his or her text. The concept of the politics of translation encompassed the issue of ownership of the text as this has been one of the important issues regarding the work of translations. Of course, the writers of the text must be its rightful owners. The translators are working to make the text readable to a particular language.The politics here then, is that who gets what, when, and how. Thus, while the credit of the text exclusively goes to the writer, the translator gets his own credit in view of the translated work.While politics speaks of conflict and disagreement, the concept of the politics of translation centers on dealing with the issues confronting the works of translation studies in order to find ways of having blind assimilation between the texts and the translator’s ideas. Both the text and the work of the translator then are important and original because we now speak of two different languages.The writer of the text gets credit for his ideas, and the translator gets his own for making the ideas of the text flourish to a particular language.Tymoczko illustrated this clearly in her discussion of translation as metaphor for colonial writing. She said, â€Å"In this sense post-colonial writing might be imaged as a form of translation in which venerable and holy relics are moved from one sanctified spot to another more central and more secure location, at which the cult is intended to be preserved, to take root and find new life† (p. 20).

Definition of Contradictory Premises

Contradictory premises involve an  argument (generally considered a logical fallacy) that draws a conclusion from inconsistent or incompatible premises. Essentially, a proposition is contradictory when it asserts and denies the same thing. Examples and Observations of Contradictory Premises Here’s an example of Contradictory Premises: If God can do anything, can He make a stone so heavy that He won’t be able to lift it?Of course, she replied promptly.But if He can do anything, He can lift the stone, I pointed out.Yeah, she said thoughtfully. Well, then I guess He can’t make the stone.But He can do anything, I reminded her.She scratched her pretty, empty head. I’m all confused, she admitted.Of course you are. Because when the premises of an argument contradict each other, there can be no argument. If there is an irresistible force, there can be no immovable object. If there is an immovable object, there can be no irresistible force. Get it?Tell me more of this keen stuff, she said eagerly.(Max Shulman, The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis. Doubleday, 1951)It is . . . sometimes difficult to distinguish between real and apparent incompatible premises. For example, a father who is trying to convince his child that no one should be trusted is obviously making an exception of himself. If he really were making incompatible claims (since you should trust no one, and you should trust me), no rational conclusion could or should be drawn by the child. However, the incompatible premises are only apparent; the father has carelessly overstated the first premise. If he had said, Dont trust most people or Trust very few people, or Dont trust anyone except me, he would have had no trouble avoiding the contradiction.(T. Edward Damer, Attacking Faulty Reasoning: A Practical Guide to Fallacy-Free Arguments, 6th ed. Wadsworth, 2008)To say that lying is justified must, according to the rational principle enshrined in the categorical imperative, be to say that everyone is justified in lying. But the implication of this is that the distinction between lying and telling the truth is no longer valid. If lying is universalized (i.e., if everyone ought to lie becomes a universal maxim of action), then the whole rationale for lying disappears because nob ody will consider that any response might be truthful. Such a [maxim] is self-contradictory, since it negates the distinction between lying and truth-telling. Lying can exist only if we expect to hear the truth; if we expect to be told lies, the motive for lying disappears. To identify lying as ethical, then, is to be inconsistent. It is to try to sustain two contradictory premises (everyone ought to lie and everyone ought to tell the truth) and is therefore not rational.(Sally E. Talbot, Partial Reason: Critical and Constructive Transformations of Ethics and Epistemology. Greenwood, 2000) Contradictory Premises in Mental Logic Unlike the standard logic of textbooks, people draw no conclusions from contradictory premises--such premise sets cannot qualify as assumptions. No one ordinarily would assume a contradictory set of premises, but would see such as absurd. (David P. OBrien, Mental Logic and Irrationality: We Can Put a Man on the Moon, So Why Cant We Solve These Logical Reasoning Problems. Mental Logic, ed. by Martin D. S. Braine and David P. OBrien. Lawrence Erlbaum, 1998)In standard logic an argument is valid as long as there is no assignment of truth values to its atomic propositions such that the premises taken conjunctively are true and the conclusion is false; thus any argument with contradictory premises is valid. In mental logic, nothing could be inferred in such a situation except that some assumption is wrong, and the schemas are not applied to premises unless the premises are accepted. (David P. OBrien, Finding Logic in Human Reasoning Requires Looking in the Right Places. Perspectives on Th inking and Reasoning, ed. by Stephen E. Newstead and Jonathan St.B. T. Evans. Lawrence Erlbaum, 1995) Also Known As: Incompatible Premises